Lesson Plan - Build A Submarine

Lesson Plan - Build A Submarine

LESSON PLAN MATERIALS:

·         Build a Submarine activity sheet

·         empty 16 or 20 oz. plastic soda bottle with hole in cap (the hole should be big enough to pass a flexible straw through)

·         three wide rubber bands

·         24 pennies

·         aluminum foil

·         adhesive tape

·         flexible straw

·         large tub of water

LESSON PLAN PROCEDURE: Build a Submarine activity sheet

1. Cut three holes in side of the soda bottle.

2. Stack the pennies into three piles containing 4, 8, and 12 pennies.

3. Carefully wrap stacks of pennies with foil.

4. Place a rubber band around the plastic bottle and slide it next to the closest hole. Position the other rubber bands next to the two remaining holes.

5. Place the four-penny stack under the rubber band closest to the bottle's top.

6. Place the eight-penny stack under the middle rubber band, next to the middle hole.

7. Place the 12-penny stack under the last rubber band (NOTE: The weights should be next to the holes NOT over them.)

8. Push the shorter end of the straw (about 1 inch) through the hole in the bottle's cap. Reattach the bottle cap to the bottle. Keep the flex section outside and bent upwards. Tape straw securely into place in bottle cap.

9. Lower the "submarine" into the water. Do not let long end of straw take in water.

10. Observe the action of the "sub" and record your observations.

11. When the sub stops sinking, blow into the straw.

12. Observe the action of the sub and record your observations.

LESSON PLAN QUESTIONS:

1. What makes your submarine sink?

2. What makes it surface?

3. After you learn the basic properties that make submersibles dive and surface. What is your soda bottle model missing that real submarines have to navigate underwater? Think of your sub as an underwater plane.

The Future of Submarines

The Future of Submarines

The evolution of future submarines for military use will be driven by the trend to use smaller, autonomous, and unmanned vehicles to perform missions both under and above the sea. Submarines of the future will be used for their inherent stealth to link and provide support to a deployed network of sensors and weapons. These deployed systems will act to increase the area over which the submarine performs its missions and improve its effectiveness in performing these missions, while reducing the threat to the submarine and its crew.

Modularization coupled with the development and use of off-board systems will allow a wide range of payloads to be employed by submarines. These remote sensors and weapons will include Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs); Unmanned Undersea Vehicles (UUVs); advanced cruise missiles; undersea acoustic and non-acoustic sensors and weapons; and new forms of submarine based systems for Anti-Submarine, Anti-Surface, and Anti-Air Warfare.

These capabilities combined with the submarine's advantage of being able to remain on-station and undetected for extended periods will multiply the effectiveness of these systems by adding the element of surprise and survivability.

The following timeline summarizes the evolution of submarine design, from the submarine's beginning as a human-powered warship to today's nuclear powered subs.

1578 <http://inventors.about.com/od/sstartinventions/a/Submarines_2.htm>

The first submarine design was drafted by William Borne but never got past the drawing stage. Borne's submarine design was based on ballast tanks which could be filled to submerge and evacuated to surface - these same principles are in use by today's submarines.

More Info <http://inventors.about.com/od/sstartinventions/a/Submarines_2.htm>

1620 <http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/bldrebbel.htm>

Cornelis Drebbel, a Dutchman, conceived and built an oared submersible. Drebbels' submarine design was the first to address the problem of air replenishment while submerged.

More Info <http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/bldrebbel.htm>

1776 <http://inventors.about.com/od/sstartinventions/a/Submarines_3.htm>

<http://inventors.about.com/od/sstartinventions/a/Submarines_3.htm> <http://inventors.about.com/od/sstartinventions/a/Submarines_3.htm> View Full-Size <javascript:zpu(515,'http://z.about.com/d/inventors/1/0/b/D/submarine10.jpg',800,800,'FSI')>  Francis BarberDavid Bushnell builds the one-man human powered Turtle submarine. The Colonial Army attempted to sink the British warship HMS Eagle with the Turtle. The first submarine to dive, surface and be used in Naval combat, its intended purpose was to break the British naval blockade of New York harbor during the American Revolution. With slight positive buoyancy, it floated with approximately six inches of exposed surface. Turtle was powered by a hand-driven propeller. The operator would submerge under the target, and using a screw projecting from the top of Turtle, he would attach a clock-detonated explosive charge.  More Info <http://inventors.about.com/od/sstartinventions/a/Submarines_3.htm>

1798 <http://inventors.about.com/od/sstartinventions/a/Submarines_4.htm>

<http://inventors.about.com/od/sstartinventions/a/Submarines_4.htm> <http://inventors.about.com/od/sstartinventions/a/Submarines_4.htm> View Full-Size <javascript:zpu(515,'http://z.about.com/d/inventors/1/0/e/D/submarine11.gif',800,800,'FSI')>  LOCRobert Fulton builds the Nautilus submarine which incorporates two forms of power for propulsion - a sail while on the surface and a hand-cranked screw while submerged.  More Info <http://inventors.about.com/od/sstartinventions/a/Submarines_4.htm>

1895 <http://inventors.about.com/od/hstartinventors/a/JohnHolland.htm>

<http://inventors.about.com/od/hstartinventors/a/JohnHolland.htm> <http://inventors.about.com/od/hstartinventors/a/JohnHolland.htm> View Full-Size <javascript:zpu(515,'http://z.about.com/d/inventors/1/0/a/D/submarine11.jpg',800,800,'FSI')>  LOCJohn P. Holland introduces the Holland VII and later the Holland VIII (1900). The Holland VIII with its petroleum engine for surface propulsion and electric engine for submerged operations served as the blueprint adopted by all the world's navies for submarine design up to 1914.  More Info <http://inventors.about.com/od/hstartinventors/a/JohnHolland.htm>

1904

The French submarine Aigette is the first submarine built with a diesel engine for surface propulsion and electric engine for submerged operations. Diesel fuel is less volatile than petroleum and is the preferred fuel for current and future conventionally powered submarine designs.

1943 <http://inventors.about.com/od/militaryhistoryinventions/a/Military_Subs_2.htm>

The German U-boat U-264 is equipped with a snorkel mast. This mast which provides air to the diesel engine allows the submarine to operate the engine at a shallow depth and recharge the batteries

More Info <http://inventors.about.com/od/militaryhistoryinventions/a/Military_Subs_2.htm>

1944

The German U-791 uses Hydrogen Peroxide as an alternative fuel source.

1954 <http://inventors.about.com/od/militaryhistoryinventions/a/Military_Subs_3.htm>

<http://inventors.about.com/od/militaryhistoryinventions/a/Military_Subs_3.htm> <http://inventors.about.com/od/militaryhistoryinventions/a/Military_Subs_3.htm> View Full-Size <javascript:zpu(515,'http://z.about.com/d/inventors/1/0/_/D/submarine12.jpg',800,800,'FSI')>  U.S. NavyThe U.S. launches the USS Nautilus - the world's first nuclear powered submarine. Nuclear power enables submarines to become true "submersibles" - able to operate underwater for an indefinite period of time. The development of the Naval nuclear propulsion plant was the work of a team Navy, government and contractor engineers led by Captain Hyman G. Rickover.  More Info <http://inventors.about.com/od/militaryhistoryinventions/a/Military_Subs_3.htm>

1958

View Full-Size <javascript:zpu(515,'http://z.about.com/d/inventors/1/0/-/D/submarine7.gif',800,800,'FSI')>  U.S NavyThe U.S. introduces the USS Albacore with a "tear drop" hull design to reduce underwater resistance and allow greater submerged speed and maneuverability. The first submarine class to use this new hull design is the USS Skipjack.

1959

View Full-Size <javascript:zpu(515,'http://z.about.com/d/inventors/1/0/Z/D/submarine8.gif',800,800,'FSI')>  U.S. NavyThe USS George Washington is the world's first nuclear powered ballistic missile firing submarine.

Nuclear Propulsion Submarines - Admiral Hyman Rickover

Nuclear Propulsion Submarines - Admiral Hyman Rickover

In the 1950s a revolution in sub design occurred - the introduction of nuclear propulsion. With nuclear power the submersible torpedo boat of old became a true submarine - a ship with greater endurance than its human crew.

Hyman Rickover - Background

Admiral, Hyman Rickover, the Father of the Nuclear Navy, was born in Makow, Russia (which is now Poland) on January 27, 1900. At the age of six, he emigrated with his parents to the United States, settling in Chicago, Illinois. Hyman Rickover entered the U.S. Naval Academy in 1918 and was commissioned an ensign in June 1922.

Following sea duty aboard USS La Vallette (DD-315) and USS Nevada (BB-36), Hyman Rickover attended Columbia University, where he earned the degree of Master of Science in Electrical Engineering. From 1929 to 1933, he qualified for submarine duty and command aboard the submarines S-9 and S-48.

In June 1937, he assumed command of USS Finch. Later that year, he was selected as an Engineering Duty Officer and spent the remainder of his career serving in that specialty.

During World War II, Hyman Rickover served as Head of the Electrical Section of the Bureau of Ships and later as Commanding Officer of the Naval Repair Base, Okinawa. In 1946, he was assigned to the Atomic Energy Commission laboratory at Oak Ridge, Tennessee and, in early 1949, to the Division of Reactor Development, U.S. Atomic Energy Commission.

USS Nautilus

As director of the Naval Reactors Branch, Hyman Rickover developed the world's first nuclear powered submarine, USS Nautilus </od/weirdmuseums/ig/Submarine-Photo-Gallery/USS-Nautilus.htm> (SSN 571), which went to sea in 1955. In the years that followed, Hyman Rickover directed all aspects of building and operating the nuclear fleet.

Hyman Rickover - Awards

Hyman Rickover's numerous medals and decorations include the Distinguished Service Medal, Legion of Merit, Navy Commendation Medal, and the World War II Victory Medal. In recognition of his wartime service, he was made Honorary Commander of the Military Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire.

Hyman Rickover was twice awarded the Congressional Gold Medal for exceptional public service. In 1980, President Jimmy Carter presented Admiral Rickover with the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the nation's highest non-military honor, for his contributions to world peace.

Hyman Rickover retired from the United States Navy on January 31, 1982, after over 63 years of service to his country and to 13 Presidents. His name is memorialized in the attack submarine USS Hyman G. Rickover (SSN 709) and Rickover Hall at the U.S. Naval Academy. Hyman Rickover died on July 8, 1986 and is buried in Arlington National Cemetery.

World War II Submarines

World War II Submarines

Both sonar and radar technology matured during World War II, and both were used by the Allies to combat German U-boats. Sonar and radar were also added to Allied submarines to warn of aircraft attack and counterattack from surface vessels. Since World War II sonar has been the most important of the submarine's senses. Hydrophones are the submarine's ears, and they listen for sounds from other ships and the echoes of sound waves transmitted from the submarine itself. See Photo: Typical WW II Submarine Layout </od/weirdmuseums/ig/Submarine-Photo-Gallery/WW-II-Submarine-Layout.htm>

Submarine Snorkels

During World War Two German submarine losses increased sharply as radar-equipped Allied aircraft attacked U-boats running on the surface recharging their batteries. To charge the batteries that powered the electric motors for submerged operations, all submarines had to surface to run their air-breathing diesel engines.

To counter the Allied radar threat the Germans perfected a Dutch device known as the snorkel. Using a snorkel a submarine could run its diesel engines and recharge its batteries while operating just below the surface. Air for the diesel engines was drawn into the submarine through the snorkel that was extended to the surface. To some extent the snorkel reduced vulnerability to detection and attack, but it protruded above the surface and could be detected by radar. The Germans introduced the snorkel too late in the war to make a difference.

Japan

Although the U.S. Navy still had a relatively small number of subs when World War Two broke out, this fact did little to dampen the spirits of American submariners. On January 7th, 1942, one month after the attack on Pearl Harbor, the USS Pollack (SS-179) sank a Japanese freighter off Tokyo Bay. It would be the first of many sinkings by U.S. submarines. When the figures were finally tabulated, it was found that American submarines sank five and one-half million tons of Japanese shipping, over half of the entire Japanese merchant fleet. U.S. subs accounted for about 60 per cent (over 1300 ships) of all Japanese merchant and warship tonnage sunk, yet the submarine strength at that time comprised less than two per cent of the entire U. S. Fleet.

The U.S. sub campaign deprived Japanese industry of raw materials and effectively shut down Japan's economy. The price of this success was high, 52 American submarines and over 3500 sailors remain on eternal patrol.

Greater Underwater Propulsion Program

Technological advancements like sonar, radar, and the snorkel came about as a result of the pressures of WW II, and the U.S. Navy applied these advances to improving its Submarine Force. In the late 1940s the Navy began the Greater Underwater Propulsion Program (Guppy </od/weirdmuseums/ig/Submarine-Photo-Gallery/Guppy-Type-Submarine.htm>), a modernization program for World War Two fleet-type submarines.

Under Guppy the fleet boats were streamlined by reducing the submarine's superstructure and removing deck guns. Snorkel masts were installed to allow Guppys to remain submerged while they ran their diesel engines and charged batteries. Finally, improved storage battery technology permitted longer submerged operations between battery charges. However, the Guppy program was evolutionary, a development of existing technologies

Military Application Submarines

Military Application Submarines

In 1912 the U.S. Navy replaced its submarine gasoline engines with safer and more efficient diesel engines. The oil-burning diesel engine required no complicated ignition, or sparking systems, and it produced fewer noxious fumes. The USS Skipjack (SS-24) and USS Sturgeon (SS-25) were the first U.S. submarines equipped with diesel propulsion.

The diesel engine and the electric battery remained the power source for submarines until nuclear power was introduced in the 1950's. While many modern submarines are still diesel powered, nuclear power has become the propulsion system of choice in US submarine construction. The British Royal Navy's submarine force is also entirely nuclear-powered. The French, Russian, and Chinese Navies use nuclear propulsion for some of their submarines.

World War I

The United States entered World War I in 1917 with a total of 24 diesel powered submarines.

U.S. Navy subs patrolled the waters off the U.S. East Coast and deployed overseas to the Azores and Ireland. The American submarines primary missions were to escort Allied shipping and counter the German U-boat threat.

Though there were no confirmed sinkings of U-boats by American submarines the number of German attacks repulsed by near misses showed the submarine to be an effective anti-submarine weapon. However, it was Germany's use of the U-boat in World War I that demonstrated the vital role the submarine would play in the next global conflict.

Naval Shipyards & All-Welded Submarines

After the war, the U.S. Navy slowly built up its sub force. Construction contracts with commercial shipyards were cut back, forcing the Lake Torpedo Boat Company to go out of business in 1922. The Portsmouth Naval Shipyard in New Hampshire became one of the largest submarine builders in the U.S. and between 1924 and 1929 the Portsmouth yard designed and built five 381-foot V-class submarines. Between 1932 and 1941, Portsmouth built an additional 22 submarines in the 1500-ton category.

It was during this period that the first all-welded submarine, USS Pike (SS-173), was completed. The welded hull allowed Pike to submerge to much greater depths than her predecessors and at the same time provided greater protection against depth-charge attacks.

Sonar

Sonar </od/sstartinventions/a/sonar_history.htm> is a system for detecting submarine sound in the water. It was first developed by the British for use against U-boats in World War I. Radar uses radio waves to detect objects on and above the land and sea surface. Radar was developed in the 1930s to detect aircraft.

The USS Holland Submarine - John Holland

The USS Holland Submarine - John Holland

In 1862, the United States Federal navy tested a prototype submarine called Alligator </od/weirdmuseums/ig/Submarine-Photo-Gallery/The-Alligator-Submarine.htm>. The Alligator submarine was intended for operations in the James River below Richmond, Virginia. However, the Alligator proved too large for diving in the river's shallow waters. The Alligator sank at sea while it was being towed to the Charleston operating area.

In 1872, the Navy unsuccessfully tested Intelligent Whale </od/weirdmuseums/ig/Submarine-Photo-Gallery/Intelligent-Whale-Submarine.htm>, another hand crank-powered submarine that failed. After the Intelligent Whale's failure as a submarine, inventors realized that until a propulsion method better than manpower could be developed for underwater use, submarines were not going to be worth the effort.

John Holland

By the last decade of the nineteenth century steam propulsion had replaced sail power in the U.S.

Navy. In 1896, the Navy insisted that submarine designer John Holland build his first contract submarine named the Plunger, with a steam engine for surface propulsion.

John Holland, an Irish-American school teacher and inventor, objected to steam power in submarines. Nonetheless John Holland built the Plunger with three steam engines to meet the Navy's prescribed surface speed.

The Plunger

During dock trials of the Plunger submarine, the temperature in the fire room reached 1370F with the power plant at 2/3 rated output. Similarly, during Plunger's sea trials a crewmember reported, "When we tried to submerge, it was so hot no one could live in her." Today, the nuclear reactor has eliminated this drawback to a heat source and submarines are driven by steam. But, before the advent of nuclear power, the internal combustion engine was the submarine's first viable source of power.

Internal Combustion Engine

The internal combustion engine </library/inventors/blinternalcombustion.htm> offered speed and comparative endurance on the surface, but its deadly carbon monoxide exhaust fumes and high oxygen consumption were obstacles to life beneath the surface. By 1900, submarine designers had solved this problem with the storage battery and electric motors. John Holland was the first to conceive of employing electric motors and the internal combustion engine to power a submarine.

John Holland and Simon Lake

John Holland and another American, Simon Lake, became the first modern submarine designers. They began their experiments in the last decades of the nineteenth century, John Holland in the 1870s and Simon Lake in the 1890s.

John Holland built six submarines, including one under government contract, before the Navy would accept one of his underwater boats. The Navy also considered, but decided not to accept, Simon Lake's Argonaut, an advanced version of his Argonaut, Jr.

Simon Lake's Argonauts had wheels with which to crawl along shallow bottoms and air locks to permit divers to enter and leave the wooden hulk while it was submerged.

USS Holland

In 1900, John Holland sold the US Navy its first viable submarine, USS Holland (SS-1) </od/weirdmuseums/ig/Submarine-Photo-Gallery/USS-Holland--SS-1-.htm>. This submarine was originally named Holland VI and was not developed under Navy contract. Holland VI was designed and built by its namesake using his own funds. USS Holland had the "amazing speed" of seven knots surfaced, made possible by her 45-horsepower internal combustion engine. She also had an endurance of several hours submerged when running on rechargeable storage batteries.

The USS Holland was armed a single torpedo tube and a pneumatic dynamite gun that fired through an opening in the bow. The Holland carried three Whitehead torpedoes, each with a pressure-sensitive piston that controlled the depth of the torpedoe run. The torpedo's stability was controlled by a pendulum, while direction was controlled by a gyroscope. A number of modern torpedoes used similar principles.

John Holland and Simon Lake were at odds in developing their submarine concepts.

John Holland and Simon Lake were at odds in developing their submarine concepts.

Simon Lake experimented with boats that ascended vertically according to negative or positive buoyancy controlled by pumps and tanks.

John Holland's boats were given neutral buoyancy by admitting water to balance the weight of the boat with the weight of water it displaced. With diving planes and a constant source of power, Johm Holland's boat could dive and surface on diagonal lines.

John Holland Submarine Diving

John Holland's principle, with some alternatives for fast diving and surfacing, is still used by modern submarines.

For all its innovations, the USS Holland </od/weirdmuseums/ig/Submarine-Photo-Gallery/USS-Holland--SS-1-.htm> had at least one major flaw; lack of vision when submerged.

The submarine had to broach the surface so the crew could look out through windows in the conning tower. Broaching deprived the Holland of one of the submarine's greatest advantages, stealth.

The Periscope

Lack of vision when submerged was eventually corrected when Simon Lake used prisms and lenses to develop the omniscope, forerunner of the periscope </library/inventors/blperiscope.htm>.

Sir Howard Grubb, designer of astronomical instruments, developed the modern periscope that was first used in Holland-designed British Royal Navy submarines. For more than 50 years, the periscope was the submarine's only visual aid until underwater television was installed aboard the nuclear powered submarine USS Nautilus </od/weirdmuseums/ig/Submarine-Photo-Gallery/USS-Nautilus.htm>.

·         More on John Holland

·         Photo of USS Holland (SS-1) </od/weirdmuseums/ig/Submarine-Photo-Gallery/USS-Holland--SS-1-.htm>

·         John Holland (1841-1914) <http://www.geocities.com/gwmccue/>

·         John Holland - Submarine Inventor <http://www.allaboutirish.com/library/people/holland.shtm>

Robert Fulton and the Nautilus Submarine

Robert Fulton and the Nautilus Submarine

Then came another American, Robert Fulton, who in 1801 successfully built and operated a submarine in France, before turning his inventing talents to the steamboat </library/inventors/blsteamship.htm>.

Robert Fulton - Nautilus Submarine 1801

Robert Fulton's cigar-shaped Nautilus submarine was driven by a hand-cranked propeller when submerged, and had a kite-like sail for surface power. The Nautilus submarine was the first submersible to have separate propulsion systems for surfaced and submerged operations. It also carried flasks of compressed air that permitted the two-man crew to remain submerged for five hours.

William Bauer - 1850

William Bauer, a German, built a submarine in Kiel in 1850, but met with little success. Bauer's first boat sank in 55 feet of water.

As his craft was sinking, he opened the flood valves to equalize the pressure inside the submarine so the escape hatch could be opened. Bauer had to convince two terrified seamen that this was the only means of escape. When the water was at chin level, the men were shot to the surface with a bubble of air that blew the hatch open. Bauer's simple technique was rediscovered years later and employed in modern submarines' escape compartments that operate on the same principle.

Horace Lawson Hunley

During the American Civil War, Confederate inventor Horace Lawson Hunley converted a steam boiler into a submarine.

This Confederate submarine called the could be propelled at four knots by a hand-driven screw. Unfortunately, the submarine sank twice during trials in Charleston, South Carolina. These accidental sinkings in Charleston harbor cost the lives of two crews. In the second accident the submarine was stranded on the bottom and Horace Lawson Hunley himself was asphyxiated with eight other crew members.

The Hunley

Subsequently, the submarine was raised and renamed the Hunley </od/weirdmuseums/ig/Submarine-Photo-Gallery/Horace-Lawson-Hunley.htm>. In 1864, armed with a 90-pound charge of powder on a long pole, the Hunley attacked and sank a new Federal steam sloop, USS Housatonic, at the entrance to Charleston Harbor.

After her successful attack on Housatonic, the Hunley disappeared and her fate remained unknown for 131 years.

In 1995 the wreck of the Hunley was located four miles off Sullivans Island, South Carolina. Even though she sank, the Hunley proved that the submarine could be a valuable weapon in time of war.

Biography - Horace Lawson Hunley 1823-1863

Horace Lawson Hunley was born in Sumner County, Tennessee, on 29 December 1823. As an adult, he served in the Louisiana State Legislature, practiced law in New Orleans and was a generally notable figure in that area.

In 1861, after the start of the American Civil War, Horace Lawson Hunley joined James R. McClintock and Baxter Watson in building the submarine Pioneer, which was scuttled in 1862 to prevent its capture. The three men later constructed two submarines at Mobile, Alabama, the second of which was named H.L. Hunley. This vessel was taken to Charleston, South Carolina, in 1863, where it was to be used to attack blockading Union ships.

During a test dive on 15 October 1863, with Horace Lawson Hunley in charge, the submarine failed to surface. All on board, including Horace Lawson Hunley, lost their lives. On 17 February 1864, after it had been raised, refurbished and given a new crew, H.L. Hunley became the first submarine to successfully attack an enemy warship when she sank USS Housatonic off Charleston.

History of the Submarine - David Bushnell 1742-1824

History of the Submarine - David Bushnell 1742-1824

From Mary Bellis </mbiopage.htm>,

David Bushnell's Turtle Submarine

The first American submarine is as old as the United States itself. David Bushnell (1742-1824), a Yale graduate, designed and built a submarine torpedo boat in 1776. The one-man vessel submerged by admitting water into the hull and surfaced by pumping it out with a hand pump. Powered by a pedal-operated propeller and armed with a keg of powder, the egg-shaped Turtle gave Revolutionary Americans high hopes for a secret weapon - a weapon that could destroy the British warships anchored in New York Harbor.

Turtle Submarine - Use as a Weapon

The Turtle's torpedo, a keg of powder, was to be attached to an enemy ship's hull and detonated by a time fuse. On the night of September 7, 1776, the Turtle, operated by an Army volunteer, Sergeant Ezra Lee, conducted an attack on the British ship HMS Eagle.

However, the boring device that was operated from inside the oak-planked Turtle failed to penetrate the target vessel's hull.

It is likely that the wooden hull was too hard to penetrate, the boring device hit a bolt or iron brace, or the operator was too exhausted to screw in the weapon. When Sergeant Lee attempted to shift the Turtle to another position beneath the hull, he lost contact with the target vessel and ultimately was forced to abandon the torpedo. Although the torpedo was never attached to the target, the clockwork timer detonated it about an hour after it was released.

The result was a spectacular explosion that ultimately forced the British to increase their vigilance and to move their ship's anchorage further out in the harbor. Royal Navy logs and reports from this period make no mention of this incident, and it is possible that the Turtle's attack may be more submarine legend than historical event.

·         David Bushnell Larger Photo of Turtle Submarine </od/weirdmuseums/ig/Submarine-Photo-Gallery/David-Bushnell-s-Turtle-Sub.htm>
David Bushnell built a unique vessel, called the Turtle, designed to be propelled under water by an operator who turned its propeller by hand.

·         David Bushnell's American Turtle <http://www.usna.edu/NAOE/new/turtle.pdf>
The only working, full-scale model of David Bushnell's 1776 invention, the American Turtle.

·         David Bushnell 1740-1826 <http://web.mit.edu/invent/iow/bushnelld.html>
The most sensational contribution of patriot and inventor David Bushnell to the American Revolutionary War effort was the world's first functioning

SUBMARINE

Submarines

From Mary Bellis </mbiopage.htm>,
History and Design of Submarines

Designs for underwater boats or submarines date back to the 1500s and ideas for underwater travel date back even further. However it was not until the 19th century that the first useful submarines began to appear. During the Civil War, the Confederates built the H.L. Hunley,the submarine that sank a Union ship. The U.S.S. Housatonic was built in 1864. But it wasn't until after World War I began that the first truly practical and modern submarines were invented.

Early History of the Submarine

The submariner's problem has always been how to improve his underwater endurance and performance, and both capabilities are defined by the ship. Early in submarine history the submariner's problem often was how to make his ship work at all.

Hollow Papyrus Reeds

Historical accounts point out that man has always sought to explore the ocean depths. An early record from the Nile Valley in Egypt gives us the first illustration. It is a wall painting that shows duck hunters, bird spears in hand, creeping up to their prey beneath the surface as they breathe through hollow papyrus reeds. The Athenians are said to have used divers to clear the harbor entrance during the siege of Syracuse.

And Alexander the Great, in his operations against Tyre, ordered divers to destroy any submersible vehicle (submarine) defenses the city might undertake to build.

While in none of these records does it actually say that Alexander had any kind of submersible vehicle, legend has it that he descended in a device that kept its occupants dry and admitted light.

William Bourne - 1578

Not until 1578 did any record appear of a craft designed for underwater navigation. William Bourne, a former Royal Navy gunner, designed a completely enclosed boat that could be submerged and rowed beneath the surface. His creation was a wooden framework bound in waterproofed leather. It was to be submerged by using hand vises to contract the sides and decrease the volume.

Although Bourne's idea never got beyond the drawing board, a similar apparatus was launched in 1605. But it didn't get much farther, because the designers had neglected to consider the tenacity of underwater mud. The craft became stuck in the river bottom during its first underwater trial.

Cornelius Van Drebbel - 1620

What might be called the first "practical" submarine was a rowboat covered with greased leather. It was the idea of Cornelius Van Drebbel </library/inventors/bldrebbel.htm>, a Dutch doctor living in England, in 1620. Van Drebbel's submarine was powered by rowers pulling on oars that protruded through flexible leather seals in the hull. Snorkel air tubes were held above the surface by floats, thus permitting a submergence time of several hours. Van Drebbel's submarine successfully maneuvered at depths of 12 to 15 feet below the surface of the Thames River.

Van Drebbel followed his first boat with two others. The later models were larger but they relied upon the same principles. Legend has it that after repeated tests, King James I of England rode in one of his later models to demonstrate its safety. Despite its successful demonstrations, Van Drebbel's invention failed to arouse the interest of the British Navy. It was an age when the possibility of submarine warfare was still far in the future.

Giovanni Borelli - 1680

In 1749 the British periodical "Gentlemen's Magazine" printed a short article describing a most unusual device for submerging and surfacing. Reproducing an Italian scheme developed by Giovanni Borelli in 1680, the article depicted a craft with a number of goatskins built into the hull. Each goatskin was to be connected to an aperture at the bottom. Borelli planned to submerge this vessel by filling the skins with water, and to surface it by forcing the water out with a twisting rod. Even though Borelli's submarine was never built it provided what was probably the first approach to the modern ballast tank.

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Gold Market

Gold Market

For the week, spot gold closed at $731.5, up $23.9 or 3.38 percent. Gold equities, as measured by the XAU Gold Index (10), rose 8.58 percent for the week. The U.S. Trade-Weighted Dollar Index (11) slid 1.28 percent for the week.

Strength

• The Federal Reserve Bank's 50 basis point rate-cut pushed gold to a 28-year high this week as the inflationary effects of a falling dollar fuel investment demand for gold.
• Gold stocks assumed a leadership position in the market this week, outpacing the S&P 500 by 578 basis points.
• Gold has also attracted attention globally. Gold oriented ETFs have returned 5.2 percent in the last month versus 4.4 percent for India's Sensex stock exchange.

Weakness

• Despite recent strength in gold equities, junior gold stocks have lagged the performance of large capitalization gold companies over the past 60 days.
• According to Standard Bank Asia Ltd., the hoarding of physical gold in Asia is creating a discount to spot gold in countries like China.
  

Opportunity

• According to Goldman Sachs, the U.S. dollar could depreciate by another 2-3 percent against Asian currencies in the next 3-6 months.
• Silver bullion may outperform gold bullion prices in the upcoming weeks as silver has lagged over the last three months.

Threat

• Given the rapid decline in the U.S. dollar central banks may step in begin buying dollars in attempt to stabilize the currency.
• Suresh Hundia, president of the Bombay Bullion Association, stated recently that both the demand for gold jewelry and gold investments will "dry up" at these high price levels.

Buying Gold is no Longer Advisable, it's a Must

Wednesday, September 19th, 2007

Buying Gold is no Longer Advisable, it's a Must
By James West

As the fundamentals driving gold straight north continue to gain intensity, the bottom line for those of us with capital tied up in other investments is that some gold in the portfolio is not merely advisable--it's a must.

If you are a student of economic history, you will understand that in spite of the world's abandonment of gold as the peg by which all currencies are measured, all currencies can still be measured in gold. That fact alone should amplify gold's unassailable position as history's value vault of last resort.

Alan Greenspan's new book, which comes out tomorrow, points the blame directly at the Bush administration for abandoning "rigorous fiscal policy" in favor of misguided "easy money."

Many commentators, however, blame Alan Greenspan for the current morass.

Their arguments suggest that if Greenspan hadn't lowered rates so drastically in response to the dot-com meltdown, the current real-estate bubble bust and accompanying credit crunch would never have materialized.

That makes no difference now, though.

Countries who participated in the U.S. style of mortgages front-loaded with low interest rates are now having to devalue their currencies by pumping in paper to replace the even more nebulous ABCP which represented imaginary credit dollars. Those dollars are frozen in time as creditors wait with teeth clenched to see what rate of default falls out of raised rates of interest.

Admittedly, the assets backing even the sub-prime caliber of debt are not utterly worthless. But they're surely not worth the value of the loans they've backed.

The yet-to-unfold problem here is that in the past, properties that were foreclosed upon found a ready market for the assets. Now, in the new tighter credit environment, that market is largely dried up, while supply is going up and will go through the roof in the months to come.

So government is having to inject more money into the system, which ultimately increases supply while lowering demand for those currencies.

Which means, in a roundabout way, the price of gold relative to those currencies is going to go up. The more money central banks have to pump back into their economies to alleviate liquidity crises, the more upward pressure will develop under the price of gold.

Presently gold is trading around its 16-month high, and looks strong at these levels.

If the Fed cuts interest rates by 25 basis points tomorrow, that will almost certainly send gold higher, as it will send a strong signal to foreign holders of U.S. currency that their rate of return on U.S. dollar holdings will fall victim to the Fed's monetary policy.

That could see those U.S. dollars move increasingly into gold as huge government investors run from the greenback.

Northern Rock PLC, the U.K. mortgage lender that was the recipient of an emergency bailout package by the Bank of England, is now effectively in play as a takeover target because of is huge drop in share price. Northern Rock has shed over 35% of its market capitalization since the announcement last week.

Customers who were lined up outside the Newcastle branch burst into laughter when an employee came out to inquire if anyone was there to deposit funds as opposed to withdrawing them.

That grass roots panic could grip some U.S. banks, and if it does, the price of gold will go through the roof in short order.

The price of gold is already going through the roof, albeit as fast as cold molasses. But this credit problem is much like the onset of a bad case of flesh-eating bacteria. One minute the patient seems healthy, and then within months there's no patient left.

A little drastic, perhaps, but it would be foolish to underestimate the scale of what is happening right now.

Gold is increasingly being snapped up by Asian and Middle Eastern customers.

Gold sales in Dubai could increase 40 per cent in September compared to last year's figures, said the managing director of the Dubai Gold and Jewellery Group in a Qatar newspaper.

The Peninsula reported that Tawhid Abdullah, who is also the chairman of international jewelry retailer Damas, said that he expects that gold sales will increase in the fourth quarter of 2007 as customers make more purchases during the Dubai Shopping Festival and the Islamic month of Ramadan.

"The market is not affected by the current prices of gold and we have a better economy in Dubai and strong consumer confidence," he said.

Gold sales in August were up 26 per cent compared to the same month in 2006.

 

 

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What You've Missed...

Jewelry Sales Rise in the City of Gold
2007-09-17 - Greg McCoach

Gold's Day in the Sun
2007-09-13 - James West

Gold vs. Blackberry
2007-09-12 - James West

Higher Gold Prices
2007-09-10 - Greg McCoach

Gold Prices Top $700 as the U.S. Dollar Falls Lower
2007-09-07 - Greg McCoach

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www.goldworld.com

The Death of the US Dollar

The Death of the US Dollar London, England - Melbourne, Australia Wednesday, 19 September 2007

In This Issue: Fed cuts rates Gold rallies Aussie housing market profoundly unaffordable

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From Dan Denning at the Old Hat Factory:

--Bang bang. Or should we say, "cut, cut". Either way, the US dollar's dead.

--We were two-thirds right in our predictions yesterday. The Fed cut both the funds rate and the discount rate by 50 basis points—exactly as we said they would. The cut in the Fed Funds rate to 4.75% is the first in four years and represents a new, disreputable phase in the shabby career of the US dollar. The discount rate—what the Fed charges banks to borrow money—was also lowered 50 basis points to 5.25%.

--What now?

--The US stock market rallied, with the Dow Industrials up 335 points for the day and the broader S&P adding on 43 points. Aussie stocks are up early too, as is the Aussie dollar (nearly two cents). But the telling gains were in oil and gold.

--Light sweet NYMEX crude closed up 94 cents and 1.17% for the day. It now trades at US$81.51—an all time high. Keep in mind that the spot price of oil was US$55.10 on January 17th of this year. If you're scoring at home, that's a 48% increase in price from the 52-week low. Oil's strength is the dollar's weakness.

--"Ultimately we see the funds rate at at least 3.75% and maybe lower. The Fed's path ahead is clear," said PIMCO's Bill Gross in an interview on Bloomberg TV. Gross mentioned what we cited yesterday. The Fed's real concern is a recession—thus the double barrelled rate cut.

--If rates go even lower—and the wave of re-setting subprimes ensures the Fed will have plenty to worry about—how much higher might the oil price go? And will it prompt OPEC to begin pricing oil in a currency that's not falling apart faster than a leper in a dodgem car?

--There are probably more questions than answers today, especially about oil. The cost of production for a barrel of Saudi crude is around US$7, if we recall correctly. For lower grade Russian crude buried under Siberian perma-frost, it's closer to US$12. Either number is a long way from US$81. Is oil part of the melt-up bubble too? Hmmn.

--Mike Rothman, the former Chief Energy strategist at Merrill Lynch, told US financial weekly Barron's over the weekend that he reckoned oil is headed to US$45. He says new supply is coming along, demand growth has slowed, and high prices have prompted two predictable marketplace reactions, substitution and conservation.

--"I don't think people are aware that demand has really fallen off so much," Rothman told Barron's. "The rate of global oil-demand growth has really slowed pretty dramatically since '04. I've had to make a large downward revision for the second quarter, and it looks like I am going to have to make another one for the third quarter. A chart of the OECD [Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development] countries shows demand growth has been negative, with the exception of a small gain in the second quarter; that's the first time since 2005 that there's been some growth in demand, and it was modest. That's the worst showing since the '80-'82 recession."

--Did he mention recession? With Japan headed toward recession and America already in one, you'd expect both to be bearish for oil demand. And then there's that bit about high prices being the cure for high prices. If US$80 oil doesn't take the edge off demand, what will it take, US$100 oil?

--Leaving aside the declining dollar's influence on oil prices, it's probably a good time for energy bulls to seriously consider the chances of a pullback in oil prices—even if oil and energy stocks are still in a long-term bull market. For the Aussie energy sector, Woodside's US$55 billion deal with China is about as good a news item as you can get.

--Woodside is trading just below its 52-week high of US$47.89. It wouldn't surprise us to see Woodside make a new high 52-week high today on the back of the rate cut and the move in oil. And after that…a correction.

--What's with all the predictions and forecasts anyway? We're not making them because it's fun to do. On the contrary. Making a prediction rarely does you any good—unless you're making money on it by trading it, which we are not doing at the Old Hat Factory. Instead, we're trying to figure out the current inter-market relationships between asset classes like cash, gold, stocks, bonds, and oil.

--Those relationships are never cut and dried. But they used to be much clearer than they are today. US stocks, for example, absolutely love the rate cuts. But if you're investing in US stocks from abroad, the dollar's morose reaction means what you'd gain from the rise of the Dow, you'd give back with the decline of the dollar.

--Again, it's not as cut and dried as we describe. But what we're getting at is that with so many variables affecting your total return as an investor, it's best to break Occam's razor and keep it simple. That means seriously considering gold's role in a fiat currency world gone mad.

--Gold for December delivery was up US$11.70 after the Fed broadcast its intent to sacrifice the dollar on behalf of the housing market. We realised the significance this morning when we noted that the futures price—at US$735—is at 27-year high. That's longer than most of our co- workers have been alive.

--Spot gold is at US$723. And unlike oil, we don't expect the high gold price to lead to lower demand. Just the opposite.

--The more the Fed cuts interest rates, the higher gold will go. As our friend Porter Stansberry put it, "The Fed will cut, and it will continue to cut, because its mandate is to protect the banks (yes… I know… its legal mandate is officially "price stability," ha, ha, ha… I'm talking about its actual mandate, though). Having made hundreds of billions in bad loans, the banks – once again – need to be bailed out."

--"Like geese that feel the winter coming even when it's still warm outside," Porter continues, "wise investors have watched the credit bubble build and have flown to gold. Anyone with any sense has long since bought gold – as we've been preaching regularly since 2003. Soon, the kind of investors who like to chase performance (a short-lived, but sometimes influential group) will jump into gold, too. That's when you'll know it's time to take some off the table…"

--It's probably not time yet, though. Here in Australia, the gold sector was up nearly 2% yesterday. Major producers Newcrest (ASX:NCM), Sinogold (ASX:SGX) and Lihir (ASX:LGL) are all up smartly today. Smaller gold stocks will likely soon follow.

--In the big picture, you're already seeing Aussie dollar strength, and a rising gold price in Aussie dollars too. Economically, however, the same fundamental problems that have laid America's economy low also afflict Australia's economy: debt, globalisation, and dependence on rising housing prices. Though the resource story is bullish, the debt story is not.

-- "Economist Steve Keen warned that mortgage obligations in Australia were set to reach crisis point in less than two years, while a study by JP Morgan found that about 600,000 households, or 8 per cent of the market, were likely to experience at least mild mortgage stress by the end of this year," writes James McCullough in today's Courier Mail.

--It's not so much that the American subprime crisis will hit Aussie banks—although that appears to be a possibility in few cases. These things are as never as isolated or "contained" as the authorities would like you to believe. The real problem is that Australians have been using debt to live above their means.

--There are several explanations. Maybe it's because wages haven't kept up with inflation. Maybe it's inflation in expectations. With so many visible signs of wealth, the temptation to feel wealthy by surrounding yourself with new things (including a home) is strong, even if you can't afford them. All you have to do is reach into your back pocket and slap down some plastic. Maybe the entire financial system is rigged to put people in debt and keep them there, making the banks rich.

--Whichever explanation you prefer, there are certain realities that don't change. Homeownership, though a nice national goal, is always a highly individual choice. More importantly, it's a straight financial decision. It comes down to simple math: can you afford the mortgage payment?

--With rising house prices, many people have been seduced into the idea of getting rich quickly through property. But affordability has not really improved. It's gotten worse, in fact. Only the availability of easy credit has kept people in the game. But this isn't a game most people should want to play—not that we are in the business of telling people what they should want. Perhaps we should rephrase: accumulating debt to buy assets that fluctuate in market value is a sucker's game. Most people lose at it.

--As one reader put it in a comment over at our website (www.dailyreckoning.com.au):

"For a year now I've been smacking my forehead over the Australian media's ostrich approach to the fact that most people here cannot afford the houses they live in.

"No wonder so many Joes here fell for it, considering how ill-informed they are by the dailies. Going by those, you'd still think the global credit bubble deflating is just "US sub-prime". "Solvency" might not even cross your mind.

"Now that the inevitable credit fiasco is happening, the first glimmerings of awareness are hitting the papers. "You mean Aussie Joe really can't afford a US$320K mortgage on a wage of US$50K and change?!!?" Like it's that surprising to anyone who has eyes in their head and a lick o' common sense.

"I'd love to see an expose - I know, won't be done until more Aussies are bloggers - on how much the mainstream media here is reliant on Real Estate advertising."

--You should be able to find a breakdown in the composition of revenues for media companies in their annual reports. We'll have a look this afternoon and report back what we find tomorrow. Until then…

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And now over to Bill Bonner:

We got word last week that our new book – written with co-author Lila Rajiva – Mobs, Messiahs, and Markets , reached the New York Times bestseller list.

Many thanks to all you Dear Readers who bought it. We earn about 30 cents, after tax, on each one that is sold. Not much. But, hey, every penny counts.

Besides, we're already getting in the spirit of the New Age. That is, along with other baby boomers, we're beginning to downsize...to simplify...to make do with less. Last night, for example, we put on a tuxedo to attend a fancy dinner. We found that we had forgotten to bring our cufflinks. We didn't really want to invest in a new pair of cufflinks, so we went to the local hardware store and bought a couple small machine-thread bolts, with nuts and washers, for less than 25 cents.

Not only were they ingenuous, they were actually rather cool. At least we thought so. We proudly showed them to Elizabeth; she wasn't impressed. She failed to see the funky elegance in them. She thought they should have stayed in the tool-chest...

But we are here to offer advice and opinions to our Dear Readers...so we will continue to pass along helpful hints and suggestions in keeping with the new downscaling, money-saving zeitgeist of the time.

Alan Greenspan came out with his own book on Monday – The Age of Turbulence. Not a very good title, in our opinion. Still, it is sure to knock our own tome off the shelves. Everyone wants to know what the Maestro was really thinking.

According to Bob Woodward's review in the Washington Post, the Fed chief liked Bill Clinton. He thought the man from Hope did a good job of holding down federal spending. By contrast, he has harsh words of criticism for the Republicans:

"My biggest frustration remained the president's unwillingness to wield his veto against out-of-control spending," Greenspan writes. "Not exercising the veto power became a hallmark of the Bush presidency... To my mind, Bush's collaborate-don't-confront approach was a major mistake."

Greenspan seems to see the Republicans as we see them; that is, as wimpy, stupid, opportunists. They might as well be Democrats! He says they deserved to lose control of the House and Senate last year: "The Republicans in Congress lost their way," Greenspan writes. "They swapped principle for power. They ended up with neither."

Of Republican leaders J. Dennis Hastert and Tom DeLay, who resigned after being indicted for violating campaign finance laws, Greenspan notes:

"House Speaker Hastert and House majority leader Tom DeLay seemed readily inclined to loosen the federal purse strings any time it might help add a few more seats to the Republican majority...I don't think the Democrats won. It was the Republicans who lost. The Democrats came to power in the Congress because they were the only party left standing."

He goes on to criticise Vice President Dick Cheney, who once remarked that, "Reagan proved deficits don't matter."

Of course, "deficits DO matter," says Greenspan.

We don't know whether anything in Greenspan's memoir will come as news. We doubt it will save Greenspan's reputation from the reappraisal it deserves. Deficits do matter, and the former Fed chairman is probably responsible for more deficits than any human being that ever lived. His emergency-low-interest rates made the whole world deficit friendly.

Businesses ran deficits...and weakened their balance sheets. Greenspan blames Bush for the US government deficits...but it was the Fed that helped make deficits so easy to finance. Individuals, too, ran deficits in their household accounts. Now, those deficits have hardened into iron-cold debt...

Meanwhile, "India is still a buy," says our Bombay colleague, Ajit Dayal. "It went down hard in 2002. Everyone was running scared. But we said it was a buying opportunity. We were right. The index recovered...and now it's higher than ever. And now people ask us if it isn't a good time to sell out. We don't think so. There could be a liquidity crunch in India, but the economy is growing...and that isn't going to change. India is a very good long-term buy."

[Editor's Note: Bill Bonner & Lila Rajiva's new book, Mobs, Messiahs and Markets, is now available in Australia from The Educated Investor. Order here for a 15% discount.]